ZTnews: Report on ICT2006

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- ZTnews for 20060901 (That's September 7, 2006)
+ Cronin B. Vining, Listmaster
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CONTENTS
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NEWS:
+- Report on ICT2006
+- Overview & Statistics
+- Proceedings
+- Awards: Best Paper, Goldsmid & Young Investigator
+- Selected Highlights
+- Society Updates: ICT2007 Sets Dates - June 3-7, 2007
+- Society Updates: ICT2007, ICT2008, Elections & Other News

+- NASA Drops Earth

+- CORRECTION: Last Chance to Pre-Order Hardcopy of ICT2006 Proceedings
The correct deadline is as stated on the pdf form: order by
September 30, 2006
Order Form Online at: http://www.its.org/node/4718

UPCOMING EVENTS: (+-+- = New Info. See full list below.)
+-+- South Korea to Host ICT2007
The 26th International Conference on Thermoelectrics
June 3-7, 2007
Seogwipo City, Jeju Island, S. Korea
Contact: Dr. Hee-Woong Lee
Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute
hwlee@keri.re.kr
http://www.its.org/ict2007/
Info Last Updated: 2006-09-02

+-+- Space Nuclear Conference 2007 (SNC '07)
Event Website: http://www.ans.org/goto/space07
Location: , Boston, MA, USA
Starts: 2007-06-24 Ends: 2007-06-28 (check event website for times)
Abstract Due Date: December 1, 2006
Contact: Lynne Schreiber, Conference Administrator
space@ans.org, Ph:+1 352-392-9722, FAX:+1 352-392-8656
Info Last Updated: 2006-09-02

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NEWS:
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-
+- Report on ICT2006
+- Overview & Statistics
+- Proceedings
+- Awards: Best Paper, Goldsmid & Young Investigator
+- Selected Highlights
+- ICT2007 Sets Dates - June 3-7, 2007
+- Society Updates: ICT2008, Elections & Other News

+- Overview & Statistics
The 25th International Conference on Thermoelectrics was held August 6-10,
2006 in one of Europe's finest cities, Vienna. For those with the interest
and time Vienna offers Castles & Palaces, Museums, music and some excellent
bratwurst and beer. The Natural History Museum alone was worth the trip
and qualifies as a business expense if you examine the skutterudite,
bismuth telluride and lead telluride specimens in their mineralogy
collection. The social highlight had to be the Reception held at the City
Hall, complete with music and dance. The final day of the conference
coincided with the breaking of the 'liquid explosives' plot in the UK and
the associated air travel disruption and confusion which followed. Not a
few of us managed to travel through London's Heathrow in the days following
the conference, suffering some stress and delay but only that.

ICT2006 set a record with 307 attendees, edging out ICT1993 held in
Yokohama, Japan with 302 official attendees. Thirty nations were
represented with large contingents from Japan (103), USA (35), Germany
(24), S. Korea (23), Russia (19), France (17) and Austria (16). About 185
manuscripts were received. All will be reviewed before appearing in the
Proceedings, a process which is already nearly complete.

+- Proceedings
ICT2006 required manuscripts be submitted prior to the conference, a
procedure new to the ICTs but one which greatly facilitates the review and
distribution process. As a result the organizers were able to provide each
attendee with a CD-ROM containing all available as-received manuscripts.
It was only after the fact realized that this CD-ROM might have been more
accurately labeled "Submitted Manuscripts", rather than "Proceedings".
Attendees will be mailed a second CD-ROM with the official Proceedings
containing the peer-reviewed manuscripts. Shipping is expected before the
end of 2006.

Note that ICT2006 attendees will not be receiving printed hardcopy of the
Proceedings. If you wish to order a hardcopy of the Proceedings you will
need to contact the publisher, IEEE, directly by September 30, 2006 using
the order form available online at: http://www.its.org/node/4718. Only a
limited number of hardcopies will be produced, so place your order now.

+- Awards: Best Paper, Goldsmid & Young Investigator
http://www.its.org/bestpapers

Each year at the ICT, papers are considered for one of two Awards: the
Best Scientific Paper Award and the Best Applications Paper Award. Awards
are presented only if unusually noteworthy papers are identified. Some
preference is given to young investigators. Presently, the award includes
a certificate and a check for US$500. A list of past winners is now
available online at: http://www.its.org/bestpapers. [Editors note:
Please let me know if you see errors or omissions in the online list.]

At ICT2006 Michael Marek Koza received the Best Scientific Paper Award for
his paper on neutron scattering in nanocage compounds. The general idea
that 'cage' compounds might have unusually low thermal conductivity values
was first suggested by G.A. Slack about 15-20 years ago and played a strong
role in his consideration of skutterudites and clathrates (among others) as
potential thermoelectric materials. The idea is to find a crystal
structure with a void more than large enough to contain a 'guest' atom,
which may then 'rattle' around and (hopefully) scatter phonons and lower
the lattice thermal conductivity. The neutron scattering study by Koga et
al is an important direct, experimental study of the phonon dynamics of
these 'rattlers'.

Title: Lattice dynamics of thermoelectric nanocage-based compounds studied
by inelastic neutron scattering.

Authors: Koza, M.M.; Viennois, R.; Mutka, H.; Girard, L.; Ravot, D.;
Toulemonde, P.; Miguel, A.S., Proceedings of the 25th International
Conference on Thermoelectrics:, ICT2006, IEEE, Vienna, Austria, p.TBD
(2006)

Abstract:
During the past ten years, nanocage based compounds like skutterudite and
clathrate have attracted scientific attention due to their particular
thermoelectric properties. In these compounds, the low thermal conductivity
is believed to be due to the scattering of the heat-carrying phonons by the
localized modes due to the rattling motion of the intercalated guest atoms
in the nanocages. Hence, the experimental study of the lattice dynamics of
these compounds is very important for confirming this picture.

We hope to have an electronic version of Koga's paper posted on the ITS
website soon.

Each year ITS also sponsors a "Goldsmid Award for Excellence in Research in
Thermoelectrics by a Graduate Student"
(http://www.its.org/taxonomy/term/257) and in 2006 initiated a new Award
"ITS Young Investigator Award for Excellence in Research in
Thermoelectrics" (http://www.its.org/taxonomy/term/258 ). These Awards
each carry a certificate, a cash prize and are to be presented at the
annual ICT Banquet, if suitable candidates have been nominated. In 2006
both Awards went unfilled because there were no applicants.

While a formal announcement for the 2007 Goldsmid and Young Investigator
Awards will not be made for some months, if you or someone you know are
interested in these awards you might begin putting together your
application package now.

+- Selected Highlights
It is not possible even to listen to all the presentations, much less to do
justice to a report on them all. The following highlights, therefore,
reflect my own interests and biases and those selected papers which caught
my attention for one reason or another. I sincerely apologize for all the
undoubted omissions and errors. Papers are presented here in no particular
order, except for the obvious bias for chronology.

Also note that I refer to each paper by the presenting author's name only.
I'm fully aware that virtually all papers represent a team (sometimes quite
a large one), so please insert 'they' for '(s)he' and 'et al' wherever
seems appropriate. The full program for ICT2006, including all the authors
for each paper, is available online at:
http://www.univie.ac.at/ICT06/ICT06_ScientProgram_2707_final.pdf.

Goldsmid, U. of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Bismuth - The thermoelectric material of the future?

TE grade Bi2Te3 costs about US$200/kg, which is driving people to consider
ways of using less material. But there are limits to reducing the amount
of material required imposed by contact resistances. So it is reasonable
to consider ways of using bismuth alone, which costs only about US$20/kg.
The ZT of n-type bismuth is thought to be attractive (possibly up to ZT~4)
if the holes can be suppressed in bulk-like materials.

Logvinov, Instituto Politecnico National, Mexico
Contribution of Professor Anatoly Samoilovich to the Development of
Thermoelectricity

Logvinov commemorates the 100th birthday of Prof. Samoilovich with a
synopsis of his contributions to thermoelectricity. Less well known
outside the Soviet Union, Samoilovich was quite influential within the
Soviet Union. He was active in both Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) and
Chernovtsy, Ukraine where he founded what is now the Institute of
Thermoelectricity headed by Prof. Anatychuk. Primarily a theoretical
physicist, and burdened by physical handicap, Semoilovich nevertheless made
important theoretical contributions and left behind a legacy of students
and institutions active to this day.

Crane, BSST, Irwindale, CA USA
Maximizing the Performance of a Thermoelectric Generator

Crane describes a TE generator design suitable for both waste heat and
primary power generation incorporating a number of novel features intended
to reduce costs, accommodate thermal expansion differences, and different
segment thickness. A "Y" shaped thermocouple design (as distinct from the
traditional "pi" shape) reduces thermal expansion issues, eliminates the
need for the n- and p- legs to be of equal length and allows for thermal
isolation (so that each thermocouple need not have the same temperature
profile as all the others). An additional concept utilizes liquid metal
joints for the electrical contact between connectors and the TE elements,
intended to relieve thermal stress. TE material requirements may be as
little as 1/6th that required for conventional devices.

Johnson, U. Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
Engineering Low Thermal Conductivity in Novel Thermoelectric Materials

Johnson reports remarkably thermal conductivity values in "designer
nanolaminates" (synthetic structures with nano-scale periodicity, but not
necessarily with thermally equilibrated crystal structures). Johnson
notes that improvements in ZT reported by Kanatzidis, Harman and
Venkatasubramanian all appear to be due primarily to reductions in lattice
thermal conductivity. So his group began looking at more complex
structures to lower thermal conductivity even more than possible with only
two components. Various chemistries based mostly on bismuth telluride, as
well as systems based on tungsten diselenide, were prepared using a
'modulated elemental reaction' synthesis method where atomic layers are
deposited on a substrate with a profile approximating the desired compound,
followed by annealing at sufficiently low temperatures such that diffusion
is still slow. Metastable structures, nanolaminates, with good periodicity
can be prepared by this method. Perhaps the most notable result to date
involves the tungsten diselenide - based nanolaminates where thermal
conductivity values well below the classically estimated minimum lattice
thermal conductivity have been repeatedly observed. Indeed, values just
below the thermal conductivity of 'still air' appear to be reproducible.
Measurements were performed by David Cahill (U. of Illinois) and speed of
sound measurements indicate the sound velocity in the nanolaminates is much
lower than expected based on the bulk materials. The low sound velocity
values explain how it is possible to reach thermal conductivity below the
classical minimum. For those fixated on ZT, the electrical resistivity was
orders of magnitude too high and ZT is quite small.

Caillat, JPL, Pasadena, CA USA
Development of a New Generation of High-Temperature Thermoelectric Couples
for Space Applications

Caillat reported on developments at JPL for space power applications.
Promising low thermal conductivity and high ZT (ZT~1 @ 1275 K, nearly twice
the state of the art SiGe values) were reported on p-type Si-Ge
nanocomposites, which may play a role in far term space applications. The
ZT values Zintl phase materials, Yb_14MnSb_11, have been reproduced with 10
batches and ZTmax ~ 1.4 +- 0.1 at very high temperatures. Sublimation at
1275 K is presently about 2000x higher than desired and remains a serious
concern for these materials.

Bell, BSST, Irwindale, CA USA
High Capacity Thermoelectric Temperature Control Systems

Bell reports on efforts to develop TE technology suitable for larger-scale
cooling, heating and temperature control applications. Using an advanced
thermodynamic cycle, increased power density designs and reduced
temperature losses at TE/electrode interfaces TE systems become competitive
with traditional two phase systems for heating and cooling capacities from
50 to 3,500 watts and TE material costs can be reduced by a factor of about
four. Advanced design tools have been developed which show good
correlation with experimental results on the new designs. In time, these
new designs are expected to find application in the automobile market.
BSST reports placing their current designs in automobiles at the rate of 1
million units last year, 1.3 million this year and 1.7 million projected
for next year.

Gaydina, RIF Corporation, Voronezh, Russia
Application of Low-Power Thermoelectric Generators

Gaydina reports on efforts at RIF corporation to develop a commercially
available thermoelectric generator. Their 60 W (electrical), 12 V
'Termit' unit weighs 20 kg and is expected to last 10 years. The units use
a radial thermocouple design, which in their design reduces heat losses
substantially. Gaydina reports producing 10 such units this year, with
plans to produce 100 units next year and a 500 watt unit in about six
months.

Gross, Office of Naval Research, USA
Converging Concepts in Nano-Structure-Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance
for Power Generation

Gross presented an overview of thermoelectric materials, devices and
systems supported by the Office of Naval Research, DARPA and interrelated
programs. With an emphasis on exploiting the possibilities of
nanostructures, end applications include waste heat recovery, primary and
auxiliary power and alternator replacement. Over 25 University, industry
and government laboratories are presently supported. One overall target is
greater than 25% system conversion efficiency and a challenge is to achieve
40-50% of Carnot. Among supported projects is the LAST work by Kanatzidis
where nanostructures may have a role in the enhanced ZT. Other objectives
include ZT=4 in the 300-900 K range, to design and build a 1 kWe device and
to publish results in peer-reviewed journals. Among results presented was
a figure attributed to Venkatasubramanian indicating a measured ZT of about
3 for some of his Bi2Te3-based superlattice materials.

O’Dwyer, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Power generation with nanowire resonant tunneling thermoelectrics

In this report Mark O'Dwyer combines aspects of the Hicks & Dresselhaus
(1992) theoretical work on nanowires with ideas introduced by Humphrey to
achieve reversible thermoelectric energy conversion to describe the
detailed requirements for a InAs/InP nanowire heterostructure capable of
achieving near Carnot electronic efficiencies. The central idea is a
nanowire with a single, embedded quantum dot through which electrons only
with the suitable, resonant energy may tunnel. A detailed theoretical
analysis of the energy levels follows for a device which may be fabricated
with available techniques. The described device is expected to be
dominated by phonon heat flow, but it is thought to provide proof of
principle that near Carnot efficiency can actually be achieved in the
electronic system.

[Note that Mark O'Dwyer, mo15@uow.edu.au, is nearing completion of his
studies in Australia and, one expects, might entertain inquiries regarding
future positions.]

Fukushima, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
(AIST), Tsukuba, Japan.
Peltier effect in sub-micron-sized metallic junctions

Fukushima reports on the Peltier effect in sub-micron sized metallic
junctions, such as Co/Au and Cr/Au interfaces, show a Peltier effect larger
than expected from bulk materials of the same elements. Plots of
electrical resistance vs. current are used to demonstrate the cooling
effect. Since the electrical resistance, R, of metals increases with
temperature, measurement of R is a proxy for measuring temperature. A plot
of R vs. I can be expected to be roughly parabolic in shape due to joule
heating, and a shift in the minimum off of I=0 indicates Peltier cooling.
Due to the small size of the junctions, the measured cooling power was
large (~ 10E5 W/cm^2) as was the current density (~ 0E7 A/cm^2). Measured
cooling power was on the order of 100 microwatts, which the authors suggest
may be large enough to be useful for some microelectronic applications.

Qiu, CANMET Energy Technology Centre-Ottawa Natural Resources Canada,
Ottawa, Canada
Integrated Thermoelectric Generator and Application to Self-Powered Heating
Systems

Qiu reports on development of a 550 W tin-telluride-based thermoelectric
module incorporated into a gas-fired furnace. The self-generated
electrical power provides increased reliability for home heat sources and
any excess power can be used to charge batteries or supplement the
household power requirements. The converter operates with between 630 oC
and about 75 oC.

Bierschenk, Marlow Industries, Dallas, TX
Assessment of TEC Requirements for Thermoelectrically Enhanced Heat Sinks
for CPU Cooling Applications

Bierschenk's report focuses on the lifetime and other requirements TE
coolers must meet in order to service the PC cooling market. Thermal
cycling is one key lifetime limiting factor for computer CPUs. Based on 2
thermal cycles per day (i.e. turning your computer on twice a day) one
estimates about 5,000 thermal cycles for 7 year service life. But CPU heat
production when running computing intensive software increases the number
of thermal cycles up to several millions over the service life. Several
types of TE coolers were life tested to determine the mean time to failure
(MTTF) of production coolers under several test conditions. With delta T
values (i.e. thermal cycle temperature change) of 15 oC the TECs survived
2,000,000 cycles with less than 2% change in resistance, and were estimated
to last 81 million cycles before resistance changes became unacceptable
(10%). The authors conclude that TECs are extremely reliable even under
the heavy thermal stresses required by CPU applications. Bierschenk
indicated the CPU industry cost target of US$0.10/watt of cooling will be
tough to meet, but that for high end (i.e. gaming) applications TECs were
more attractive.

Fedorov, Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia
Some peculiarities of development of efficient thermoelectrics on the base
of silicon compounds.

Fedorov reports ZTmax > 1.1 for n-type Mg_2Si_0.4Sn_0.6 between about 650
and 750 K, depending on doping level. Seebeck, resistivity and thermal
conductivity were measured simultaneously between 80 - 850 K and for a
range of doping levels. Key to the high ZT value is the degeneracy of two
different conduction bands which occurs at this particular composition and
enhance the Seebeck coefficient, amounting to up to a 50% enhancement in
ZT.

Chaput, Laboratoire de Physique des Materiaux, UMR, Nancy France
Calculation of transport properties for thermoelectric materials

Chaput discusses efforts to calculate thermoelectric transport properties
from first principles, using band structure calculations as an input. The
anisotropic thermoelectric properties Zinc are calculated and good
agreement with experiment is achieved even for this difficult test case.

Witanachchi,U. of South Florida, Tampa, FL USA
Synthesis and Characterization of Bulk and Thin Film Type I and Type II
Clathrate Materials for Thermoelectric and Optoelectronic Applications.

Witanachchi uses a pulsed laser ablation method to prepare polycrystalline
thin films of the type I clathrate Ba_8Ge_16Ge_30. SEM, XRD and EDX
confirmed the low defect density, crystallinity and composition.
Electrical resistivity measurements between 50-300 K are believed to be the
first reported on a thin film clathrate. Resistivity decreases from about
10 to 3.5 ohm-cm as temperature increases from 50 to 300 K, indicating
semiconducting behavior. The paper establishes a new fabrication technique
suitable for studying the properties of clathrates.

Welle, Aerospace Corporation, USA
Stand-Off Pressures in the Peltier-Actuated Microvalve

Welle describes use of a Peltier device to freeze the fluid in a flow
channel suitable for micro-fluidic applications, thereby controlling the
flow without need for the usual mechanical plunger actuated values. The
present study focuses on determining the maximum stand-off pressure
possible for such values and also studies the effects of supercooling. The
valves are shown to withstand more than 10 MPa, exceeding Welle's present
ability to measure the pressure. Thermoelectric leg lengths were reduced
to 300 microns to reduce response time to about 50 ms. Supercooling of the
water working fluid becomes an issue in microfluidic devices, which are
relatively free of nucleation sites. Experiments and thermal modeling
indicate that supercooling of 15-20 oC can be expected in Peltier-actuated
microvalves using water but such cooling can still be achieved and with
satisfactory performance.

Mori, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan
Homologous rare earth boron cluster compounds; a possible n-type
counterpart to boron carbide

Mori reports studies of boron-rich rare-earth compounds based on B_12
icosohedra (RE-B_x-C[N}) which exhibit both n-type and p-type behavior with
low thermal conductivity (~ 0.02 W/cm-K), reasonably large Seebeck
coefficient values (up to about +70 to -60 microV/K) and electrical
resistivity values in the milliohm-cm range all at high temperatures (1000
K). Boron carbide and related boron cluster compounds have been of
interest as potential high temperature TE materials for some years, but
satisfactory n-type materials have been particularly difficult to find.
These new compounds exhibit n-type behavior without extreme doping efforts.
The conduction mechanism appears to be different from the variable-range
hopping behavior typical of boron-carbide class materials. While the power
factor values are presently not as high as desired, further development may
yield materials useful as high as 1500 K.

+- ICT2007 Sets Dates - June 3-7, 2007

Last year the Board selected Dr. H. W. Lee's proposal from the Korea
Electrotechnology Research Institute to host ICT2007 on Jeju Island, S.
Korea. The dates for this conference have now been fixed at June 3-7,
2007. Further details will be provided by this mail list as they become
available and we will keep the latest available information online at
http://www.its.org/ict2007.

+- Society Updates: ICT2007, ICT2008, Elections & Other News

The Annual Board Meeting for the International Thermoelectric Society is
held each year the day before the ICT proper opens. At ICT2006, as in some
recent years, ITS business items required more discussion than convenient
for a single session and a second meeting was held during the week. Some
of the main items of discussion always include site selection for future
ICTs, financial matters, elections and many other items.

This year, in spite of a Call for Proposals, no formal proposals were
received to host ICT2008. As a result, President Uher announced that the
ITS Board would entertain proposals from attendees to host ICT2008 anywhere
in the world. At this time the ITS Board has received several expressions
of interest and has established a timetable to allow a site selection
announcement by the end of 2006.

For those looking ahead, the usual ITS rotation of locations would return
the ICT to Europe in 2009. A formal Call for Proposals to host ICT2009
will eventually be issued, but potential host organizations should begin
thinking about the matter now.

There are typically about 12-14 members of the ITS Board, with staggered
terms of 3 years. Voting by ICT attendees each year fills any vacancies,
with the hope that Board membership will be geographically diverse. The
three ITS Officers (currently President Uher, Treasurer Boettner, and
Secretary Rowe) by the Board members from among the Board members. Also,
each ICT chair automatically becomes a Board member in recognition of their
key role in the Society.

The terms of four ITS Board members expired at the end of ICT2006:

Fleurial (JPL, USA)
Koumoto (Nagoya, Japan)
Rowe (Cardiff, Wales) and
Tedenac (Nancy, France).

Prof. Rowe was re-elected by the Board as ITS Secretary and therefore
remains on the Board. Prof. Koumoto was re-elected to the Board by the
attendees and therefore also remains on the Board.

The terms of Dr. Fleurial and Prof. Tedenac have expired and they were not
re-elected. Speaking as an ITS member and Webmaster I'd like to thank
Jean-Pierre and Jean Claude for their service to the ITS.

The sole addition to the ITS Board this year is Thierry Caillat (JPL, USA).
Dr. Caillat is well known to the community and has served previously on
the ITS Board. Welcome back Thierry!

Finally, the ITS Board voted to add a Best Poster Award beginning with
ICT2007 which will be in addition to the annual Best Scientific Paper and
Best Applications Paper awards.

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+- NASA Drops Earth
Reprinted from Robert L. Park's "WHAT'S NEW"
http://www.bobpark.org/

WHAT'S NEW Robert L. Park Friday, 28 Jul 06 Washington, DC

4. NASA: "OUR HOME PLANET" IS REMOVED FROM MISSION STATEMENT.
On 3 Feb, after NASA climate scientist James Hansen told the NY
Times he was being harassed for speaking out about greenhouse gas
emissions http://bobpark.physics.umd.edu/WN06/wn020306.html ,
NASA Chief Michael Griffin issued a "scientific openness" policy.
However, on 6 Feb, the phrase, "understand and protect our home
planet," was quietly removed from the NASA mission statement. It
had been cited by Hansen to justify his remarks.

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-
UPCOMING EVENTS ( +-+- = New or Updated Information):
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-
+- Thermal Challenges in Next Generation Electronic Systems (THERMES
2007)
http://www.engconfintl.org/7acbody.html
Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA
2007-01-06 thru 2007-01-06
Abstract Due Date: June 9, 2006
Contact: Professor Suresh V. Garimella, mailto:sureshg@ecn.purdue.edu

+-+- South Korea to Host ICT2007
The 26th International Conference on Thermoelectrics
June 3-7, 2007
Seogwipo City, Jeju Island, S. Korea
Contact: Dr. Hee-Woong Lee
Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute
hwlee@keri.re.kr
http://www.its.org/ict2007/

+-+- Space Nuclear Conference 2007 (SNC '07)
Event Website: http://www.ans.org/goto/space07
Location: , Boston, MA, USA
Starts: 2007-06-24 Ends: 2007-06-28 (check event website for times)
Abstract Due Date: December 1, 2006
Contact: Lynne Schreiber, Conference Administrator
space@ans.org, Ph:+1 352-392-9722, FAX:+1 352-392-8656
Info Last Updated: 2006-09-02

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That's all for today. Let me know if I forgot anything!
Or if you have News you'd like to pass along... pass it along to me!

- Cronin

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